R for Biologist - An Introduction to R (Beginner)

Topics covered in this introduction to R

  1. Basic data types in R
  2. Import and export data in R
  3. Functions in R
  4. Basic statistics in R
  5. Simple data visulization in R
  6. Install packages in R
  7. Save data in R session

Topic 1. Basic data types in R

Simple variables: variables that have a numeric value, a character value (such as a string), or a logical value (True or False)

Examples of numeric values.

# assign number 150 to variable a.
a <- 150
a
## [1] 150
# assign a number in scientific format to variable b.
b <- 3e-2
b
## [1] 0.03

Examples of character values.

# assign a string "Professor" to variable title
title <- "Professor"
title
## [1] "Professor"
# assign a string "Hello World" to variable hello
hello <- "Hello World"
hello
## [1] "Hello World"

Examples of logical values.

# assign logical value "TRUE" to variable is_female
is_female <- TRUE
is_female
## [1] TRUE
# assign logical value "FALSE" to variable is_male
is_male <- FALSE
is_male
## [1] FALSE
# assign logical value to a variable by logical operation
age <- 20
is_adult <- age > 18
is_adult
## [1] TRUE

To find out the type of variable.

class(is_female)
## [1] "logical"
# To check whether the variable is a specific type
is.numeric(hello)
## [1] FALSE
is.numeric(a)
## [1] TRUE
is.character(hello)
## [1] TRUE

The rule to convert a logical variable to numeric: TRUE > 1, FALSE > 0

as.numeric(is_female)
## [1] 1
as.numeric(is_male)
## [1] 0

R does not know how to convert a numeric variable to a character variable.

b
## [1] 0.03
as.character(b)
## [1] "0.03"

Vectors: a vector is a combination of multiple values(numeric, character or logical) in the same object. A vector is created using the function c() (for concatenate).

friend_ages <- c(21, 27, 26, 32)
friend_ages
## [1] 21 27 26 32
friend_names <- c("Mina", "Ella", "Anna", "Cora")
friend_names
## [1] "Mina" "Ella" "Anna" "Cora"

One can give names to the elements of a vector.

# assign names to a vector by specifying them
names(friend_ages) <- c("Mina", "Ella", "Anna", "Carla")
friend_ages
##  Mina  Ella  Anna Carla
##    21    27    26    32
# assign names to a vector using another vector
names(friend_ages) <- friend_names
friend_ages
## Mina Ella Anna Cora
##   21   27   26   32

Or One may create a vector with named elements from scratch.

friend_ages <- c(Mina=21, Ella=27, Anna=26, Cora=32)
friend_ages
## Mina Ella Anna Cora
##   21   27   26   32

To find out the length of a vector:

length(friend_ages)
## [1] 4

To access elements of a vector: by index, or by name if it is a named vector.

friend_ages[2]
## Ella
##   27
friend_ages["Ella"]
## Ella
##   27
friend_ages[c(1,3)]
## Mina Anna
##   21   26
friend_ages[c("Mina", "Anna")]
## Mina Anna
##   21   26
# selecting elements of a vector by excluding some of them.
friend_ages[-3]
## Mina Ella Cora
##   21   27   32

To select a subset of a vector can be done by logical vector.

my_friends <- c("Mina", "Ella", "Anna", "Cora")
my_friends
## [1] "Mina" "Ella" "Anna" "Cora"
has_child <- c("TRUE", "TRUE", "FALSE", "TRUE")
has_child
## [1] "TRUE"  "TRUE"  "FALSE" "TRUE"
my_friends[has_child == "TRUE"]
## [1] "Mina" "Ella" "Cora"

*** NOTE: a vector can only hold elements of the same type.

Matrices: A matrix is like and Excel sheet containing multiple rows and columns. It is used to combine vectors of the same type.

col1 <- c(1,3,8,9)
col2 <- c(2,18,27,10)
col3 <- c(8,37,267,19)

my_matrix <- cbind(col1, col2, col3)
my_matrix
##      col1 col2 col3
## [1,]    1    2    8
## [2,]    3   18   37
## [3,]    8   27  267
## [4,]    9   10   19
rownames(my_matrix) <- c("row1", "row2", "row3", "row4")
my_matrix
##      col1 col2 col3
## row1    1    2    8
## row2    3   18   37
## row3    8   27  267
## row4    9   10   19
t(my_matrix)
##      row1 row2 row3 row4
## col1    1    3    8    9
## col2    2   18   27   10
## col3    8   37  267   19

To find out the dimension of a matrix:

ncol(my_matrix)
## [1] 3
nrow(my_matrix)
## [1] 4
dim(my_matrix)
## [1] 4 3

Accessing elements of a matrix is done in similar ways to accessing elements of a vector.

my_matrix[1,3]
## [1] 8
my_matrix["row1", "col3"]
## [1] 8
my_matrix[1,]
## col1 col2 col3
##    1    2    8
my_matrix[,3]
## row1 row2 row3 row4
##    8   37  267   19
my_matrix[col3 > 20,]
##      col1 col2 col3
## row2    3   18   37
## row3    8   27  267

Calculations with matrices.

my_matrix * 3
##      col1 col2 col3
## row1    3    6   24
## row2    9   54  111
## row3   24   81  801
## row4   27   30   57
log10(my_matrix)
##           col1     col2     col3
## row1 0.0000000 0.301030 0.903090
## row2 0.4771213 1.255273 1.568202
## row3 0.9030900 1.431364 2.426511
## row4 0.9542425 1.000000 1.278754

Total of each row.

rowSums(my_matrix)
## row1 row2 row3 row4
##   11   58  302   38

Total of each column.

colSums(my_matrix)
## col1 col2 col3
##   21   57  331

It is also possible to use the function apply() to apply any statistical functions to rows/columns of matrices. The advantage of using apply() is that it can take a function created by user.

The simplified format of apply() is as following:

apply(X, MARGIN, FUN)

X: data matrix MARGIN: possible values are 1 (for rows) and 2 (for columns) FUN: the function to apply on rows/columns

To calculate the mean of each row.

apply(my_matrix, 1, mean)
##       row1       row2       row3       row4
##   3.666667  19.333333 100.666667  12.666667

To calculate the median of each row

apply(my_matrix, 1, median)
## row1 row2 row3 row4
##    2   18   27   10

Factors: a factor represents categorical or groups in data. The function factor() can be used to create a factor variable.

friend_groups <- factor(c(1,2,1,2))
friend_groups
## [1] 1 2 1 2
## Levels: 1 2

In R, categories are called factor levels. The function levels() can be used to access the factor levels.

levels(friend_groups)
## [1] "1" "2"

Change the factor levels.

levels(friend_groups) <- c("best_friend", "not_best_friend")
friend_groups
## [1] best_friend     not_best_friend best_friend     not_best_friend
## Levels: best_friend not_best_friend

Change the order of levels.

levels(friend_groups) <- c("not_best_friend", "best_friend")
friend_groups
## [1] not_best_friend best_friend     not_best_friend best_friend
## Levels: not_best_friend best_friend

By default, the order of factor levels is taken in the order of numeric or alphabetic.

friend_groups <- factor(c("not_best_friend", "best_friend", "not_best_friend", "best_friend"))
friend_groups
## [1] not_best_friend best_friend     not_best_friend best_friend
## Levels: best_friend not_best_friend

The factor levels can be specified when creating the factor, if the order does not follow the default rule.

friend_groups <- factor(c("not_best_friend", "best_friend", "not_best_friend", "best_friend"), levels=c("not_best_friend", "best_friend"))
friend_groups
## [1] not_best_friend best_friend     not_best_friend best_friend
## Levels: not_best_friend best_friend

If you want to know the number of individuals at each levels, there are two functions.

summary(friend_groups)
## not_best_friend     best_friend
##               2               2
table(friend_groups)
## friend_groups
## not_best_friend     best_friend
##               2               2

Data frames: a data frame is like a matrix but can have columns with different types (numeric, character, logical).

A data frame can be created using the function data.frame().

# creating a data frame using previously defined vectors
friends <- data.frame(name=friend_names, age=friend_ages, child=has_child)
friends
##      name age child
## Mina Mina  21  TRUE
## Ella Ella  27  TRUE
## Anna Anna  26 FALSE
## Cora Cora  32  TRUE

To check whether a data is a data frame, use the function is.data.frame().

is.data.frame(friends)
## [1] TRUE
is.data.frame(my_matrix)
## [1] FALSE

One can convert a object to a data frame using the function as.data.frame().

class(my_matrix)
## [1] "matrix"
my_data <- as.data.frame(my_matrix)
class(my_data)
## [1] "data.frame"

A data frame can be transposed in the similar way as a matrix.

my_data
##      col1 col2 col3
## row1    1    2    8
## row2    3   18   37
## row3    8   27  267
## row4    9   10   19
t(my_data)
##      row1 row2 row3 row4
## col1    1    3    8    9
## col2    2   18   27   10
## col3    8   37  267   19

To obtain a subset of a data frame can be done in similar ways as we have discussed: by index, by row/column names, or by logical values.

friends["Mina",]
##      name age child
## Mina Mina  21  TRUE
# The columns of a data frame can be referred to by the names of the columns
friends
##      name age child
## Mina Mina  21  TRUE
## Ella Ella  27  TRUE
## Anna Anna  26 FALSE
## Cora Cora  32  TRUE
friends$age
## [1] 21 27 26 32
friends[friends$age > 26,]
##      name age child
## Ella Ella  27  TRUE
## Cora Cora  32  TRUE
friends[friends$child == "TRUE",]
##      name age child
## Mina Mina  21  TRUE
## Ella Ella  27  TRUE
## Cora Cora  32  TRUE

Function subset() can also be used to get a subset of a data frame.

# select friends that are older than 26
subset(friends, age > 26)
##      name age child
## Ella Ella  27  TRUE
## Cora Cora  32  TRUE
# select the information of the ages of friends
subset(friends, select=age)
##      age
## Mina  21
## Ella  27
## Anna  26
## Cora  32

A data frame can be extended.

# add a column that has the information on the marrital status of friends
friends$married <- c("YES", "YES", "NO", "YES")
friends
##      name age child married
## Mina Mina  21  TRUE     YES
## Ella Ella  27  TRUE     YES
## Anna Anna  26 FALSE      NO
## Cora Cora  32  TRUE     YES

A data frame can also be extended using the functions cbind() and rbind().

# add a column that has the information on the salaries of friends
cbind(friends, salary=c(4000, 8000, 2000, 6000))
##      name age child married salary
## Mina Mina  21  TRUE     YES   4000
## Ella Ella  27  TRUE     YES   8000
## Anna Anna  26 FALSE      NO   2000
## Cora Cora  32  TRUE     YES   6000

Lists: a list is an ordered collection of objects, which can be any type of R objects (vectors, matrices, data frames).

A list can be created using the function list().

my_list <- list(mother="Sophia", father="John", sisters=c("Anna", "Emma"), sister_age=c(5, 10))
my_list
## $mother
## [1] "Sophia"
##
## $father
## [1] "John"
##
## $sisters
## [1] "Anna" "Emma"
##
## $sister_age
## [1]  5 10
# names of elements in the list
names(my_list)
## [1] "mother"     "father"     "sisters"    "sister_age"
# number of elements in the list
length(my_list)
## [1] 4

To access elements of a list can be done using its name or index.

my_list$mother
## [1] "Sophia"
my_list[["mother"]]
## [1] "Sophia"
my_list[[1]]
## [1] "Sophia"
my_list[[3]]
## [1] "Anna" "Emma"
my_list[[3]][2]
## [1] "Emma"

Topic 2. Import and export data in R

R base function read.table() is a general funciton that can be used to read a file in table format. The data will be imported as a data frame.

# If you have downloaded the raw_counts.txt file to your working directory, you may use the following command to read it in.
data <- read.table(file="raw_counts.txt", sep="\t", header=T, stringsAsFactors=F)

# There is a more convenient way to read files from the internet.
data <- read.table(file="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/ucdavis-bioinformatics-training/2017-August-Variant-Analysis-Workshop/master/friday/Intro2R/raw_counts.txt", sep="\t", header=T, stringsAsFactors=F)

Take a look at the beginning part of the data frame.

head(data)
##            C61  C62  C63  C64  C91  C92  C93 C94 I561 I562 I563 I564 I591
## AT1G01010  322  346  256  396  372  506  361 342  638  488  440  479  770
## AT1G01020  149   87  162  144  189  169  147 108  163  141  119  147  182
## AT1G01030   15   32   35   22   24   33   21  35   18    8   54   35   23
## AT1G01040  687  469  568  651  885  978  794 862  799  769  725  715  811
## AT1G01046    1    1    5    4    5    3    0   2    4    3    1    0    2
## AT1G01050 1447 1032 1083 1204 1413 1484 1138 938 1247 1516  984 1044 1374
##           I592 I593 I594 I861 I862 I863 I864 I891 I892 I893 I894
## AT1G01010  430  656  467  143  453  429  206  567  458  520  474
## AT1G01020  156  153  177   43  144  114   50  161  195  157  144
## AT1G01030    8   16   24   42   17   22   39   26   28   39   30
## AT1G01040  567  831  694  345  575  605  404  735  651  725  591
## AT1G01046    8    8    1    0    4    0    3    5    7    0    5
## AT1G01050 1355 1437 1577  412 1338 1051  621 1434 1552 1248 1186

Depending on the format of the file, several variants of read.table() are available to make reading a file easier.

read.csv(): for reading “comma separated value” files (.csv).

read.csv2(): variant used in countries that use a comma “,” as decimal point and a semicolon “;” as field separators.

read.delim(): for reading “tab separated value” files (“.txt”). By default, point(“.”) is used as decimal point.

read.delim2(): for reading “tab separated value” files (“.txt”). By default, comma (“,”) is used as decimal point.

# If you have downloaded the raw_counts.csv file to your working directory, you may use the following command to read it in.
data2 <- read.csv(file="raw_counts.csv", stringsAsFactors=F)

# Otherwise, you may read the file by providing the url to the read.csv() function.
data2 <- read.csv(file="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/ucdavis-bioinformatics-training/2017-August-Variant-Analysis-Workshop/master/friday/Intro2R/raw_counts.csv", stringsAsFactors=F)

# To look at the file:
head(data2)
##            C61  C62  C63  C64  C91  C92  C93 C94 I561 I562 I563 I564 I591
## AT1G01010  322  346  256  396  372  506  361 342  638  488  440  479  770
## AT1G01020  149   87  162  144  189  169  147 108  163  141  119  147  182
## AT1G01030   15   32   35   22   24   33   21  35   18    8   54   35   23
## AT1G01040  687  469  568  651  885  978  794 862  799  769  725  715  811
## AT1G01046    1    1    5    4    5    3    0   2    4    3    1    0    2
## AT1G01050 1447 1032 1083 1204 1413 1484 1138 938 1247 1516  984 1044 1374
##           I592 I593 I594 I861 I862 I863 I864 I891 I892 I893 I894
## AT1G01010  430  656  467  143  453  429  206  567  458  520  474
## AT1G01020  156  153  177   43  144  114   50  161  195  157  144
## AT1G01030    8   16   24   42   17   22   39   26   28   39   30
## AT1G01040  567  831  694  345  575  605  404  735  651  725  591
## AT1G01046    8    8    1    0    4    0    3    5    7    0    5
## AT1G01050 1355 1437 1577  412 1338 1051  621 1434 1552 1248 1186

R base function write.table() can be used to export a data frame or matrix to a file.

# To write to a file called "output.txt" in your current working directory.
write.table(data2[1:20,], file="output.txt", sep="\t", quote=F, row.names=T, col.names=T)

It is also possible to export data to a csv file.

write.csv()

write.csv2()

Topic 3. Functions in R

Invoking a function by its name, followed by the parenthesis and zero or more arguments.

# to find out the current working directory
getwd()
## [1] "/Users/mattsettles/projects/src/github.com-ucdavis-bioinformatics-training/2018-September-Bioinformatics-Prerequisites/thursday/Intro2R"
# to set a different working directory, use setwd
setwd("/Users/jli/Desktop")

# to list all variables in the environment
ls()
##  [1] "a"             "age"           "b"             "col1"
##  [5] "col2"          "col3"          "data"          "data2"
##  [9] "friend_ages"   "friend_groups" "friend_names"  "friends"
## [13] "has_child"     "hello"         "is_adult"      "is_female"
## [17] "is_male"       "my_data"       "my_friends"    "my_list"
## [21] "my_matrix"     "title"
# to create a vector from 2 to 3, usin increment of 0.1
seq(2, 3, by=0.1)
##  [1] 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
# to create a vector with repeated elements
rep(1:3, times=3)
## [1] 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
rep(1:3, each=3)
## [1] 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
# to get help information on a function in R: ?function.name()
?seq()
?sort()
?rep()

One useful function to find out information on a variable: str()

str(data2)
## 'data.frame':    33602 obs. of  24 variables:
##  $ C61 : int  322 149 15 687 1 1447 2667 297 0 74 ...
##  $ C62 : int  346 87 32 469 1 1032 2472 226 0 79 ...
##  $ C63 : int  256 162 35 568 5 1083 2881 325 0 138 ...
##  $ C64 : int  396 144 22 651 4 1204 2632 341 0 85 ...
##  $ C91 : int  372 189 24 885 5 1413 5120 199 0 68 ...
##  $ C92 : int  506 169 33 978 3 1484 6176 180 0 41 ...
##  $ C93 : int  361 147 21 794 0 1138 7088 195 0 110 ...
##  $ C94 : int  342 108 35 862 2 938 6810 107 0 81 ...
##  $ I561: int  638 163 18 799 4 1247 2258 377 0 72 ...
##  $ I562: int  488 141 8 769 3 1516 1808 534 0 76 ...
##  $ I563: int  440 119 54 725 1 984 2279 300 0 184 ...
##  $ I564: int  479 147 35 715 0 1044 2299 223 0 156 ...
##  $ I591: int  770 182 23 811 2 1374 4755 298 0 96 ...
##  $ I592: int  430 156 8 567 8 1355 3128 318 0 70 ...
##  $ I593: int  656 153 16 831 8 1437 4419 397 0 77 ...
##  $ I594: int  467 177 24 694 1 1577 3726 373 0 77 ...
##  $ I861: int  143 43 42 345 0 412 1452 86 0 174 ...
##  $ I862: int  453 144 17 575 4 1338 1516 266 0 113 ...
##  $ I863: int  429 114 22 605 0 1051 1455 281 0 69 ...
##  $ I864: int  206 50 39 404 3 621 1429 164 0 176 ...
##  $ I891: int  567 161 26 735 5 1434 3867 230 0 69 ...
##  $ I892: int  458 195 28 651 7 1552 4718 270 0 80 ...
##  $ I893: int  520 157 39 725 0 1248 4580 220 0 81 ...
##  $ I894: int  474 144 30 591 5 1186 3575 229 0 62 ...

Two special functions: lapply() and sapply()

lapply() is to apply a given function to every element of a list and obtain a list as results.

The difference between lapply() and apply() is that lapply() can be applied on objects like dataframes, lists or vectors. Function apply() only works on an array of dimension 2 or a matrix.

To check the syntax of using lapply():

#?lapply()

data <- as.data.frame(matrix(rnorm(49), ncol=7), stringsAsFactors=F)
dim(data)
## [1] 7 7
lapply(1:dim(data)[1], function(x){sum(data[x,])})
## [[1]]
## [1] -3.196251
##
## [[2]]
## [1] 4.629736
##
## [[3]]
## [1] -2.386937
##
## [[4]]
## [1] -4.244555
##
## [[5]]
## [1] -4.26624
##
## [[6]]
## [1] -1.920159
##
## [[7]]
## [1] 0.4293733
apply(data, MARGIN=1, sum)
## [1] -3.1962511  4.6297360 -2.3869367 -4.2445553 -4.2662399 -1.9201587
## [7]  0.4293733
lapply(1:dim(data)[1], function(x){log10(sum(data[x,]))})
## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced
## [[1]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[2]]
## [1] 0.6655562
##
## [[3]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[4]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[5]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[6]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[7]]
## [1] -0.367165

The function sapply() works like function lapply(), but tries to simplify the output to the most elementary data structure that is possible. As a matter of fact, sapply() is a “wrapper” function for lapply(). By default, it returns a vector.

# To check the syntax of using sapply():
#?sapply()

sapply(1:dim(data)[1], function(x){log10(sum(data[x,]))})
## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced
## [1]        NaN  0.6655562        NaN        NaN        NaN        NaN
## [7] -0.3671650

If the “simplify” parameter is turned off, sapply() will produced exactly the same results as lapply(), in the form of a list. By default, “simplify” is turned on.

sapply(1:dim(data)[1], function(x){log10(sum(data[x,]))}, simplify=FALSE)
## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced

## Warning in FUN(X[[i]], ...): NaNs produced
## [[1]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[2]]
## [1] 0.6655562
##
## [[3]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[4]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[5]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[6]]
## [1] NaN
##
## [[7]]
## [1] -0.367165

Topic 4. Basic statistics in R

Description R_function
Mean mean()
Standard deviation sd()
Variance var()
Minimum min()
Maximum max()
Median median()
Range of values: minimum and maximum range()
Sample quantiles quantile()
Generic function summary()
Interquartile range IQR()

Calculate the mean expression for each sample.

apply(data, 2, mean)
##          V1          V2          V3          V4          V5          V6
## -0.07493860  0.09016817 -0.07351656 -0.41336725 -0.35316022 -0.46762713
##          V7
## -0.27256304

Calculate the range of expression for each sample.

apply(data, 2, range)
##             V1        V2        V3        V4        V5         V6
## [1,] -1.660427 -1.191180 -1.536469 -2.256240 -1.496846 -1.6728333
## [2,]  1.391026  0.980829  1.177698  1.078647  2.134961  0.7939947
##             V7
## [1,] -1.298585
## [2,]  0.716350

Calculate the quantiles of each samples.

apply(data, 2, quantile)
##              V1         V2         V3         V4         V5         V6
## 0%   -1.6604271 -1.1911804 -1.5364690 -2.2562401 -1.4968461 -1.6728333
## 25%  -0.8622092 -0.3864804 -0.8237535 -1.4613897 -1.1177519 -1.2923110
## 50%  -0.2017710  0.0567153 -0.2640791  0.1169598 -0.4286974 -0.4084193
## 75%   0.8355103  0.7788870  0.8778705  0.5449211 -0.2230176  0.2992450
## 100%  1.3910257  0.9808290  1.1776980  1.0786468  2.1349609  0.7939947
##              V7
## 0%   -1.2985853
## 25%  -0.5358018
## 50%  -0.3978581
## 75%   0.0718778
## 100%  0.7163500

Topic 5. Simple data visulization in R

Scatter plot and line plot can be produced using the function plot().

x <- c(1:50)
y <- 1 + sqrt(x)/2
plot(x,y)

plot(x,y, type="l")

# plot both the points and lines
## first plot points
plot(x,y)
lines(x,y, type="l")

## lines() can only be used to add information to a graph, while it cannot produce a graph on its own.

boxplot() can be used to summarize data.

boxplot(data, xlab="Sample ID", ylab="Raw Counts")

x <- rnorm(1000)
boxplot(x)

hist() can be used to create histograms of data.

hist(x)

# use user defined break points
hist(x, breaks=seq(range(x)[1]-1, range(x)[2]+1, by=0.5))

# clear plotting device/area
dev.off()
## null device
##           1

Topic 6. Install packages in R

There are two ways to install bioconductor packages in R: biocLite(), install.packages()

source("http://bioconductor.org/biocLite.R")
## Bioconductor version 3.7 (BiocInstaller 1.30.0), ?biocLite for help
## install core packages
#biocLite()
## install specific packages
#biocLite("RCircos")
#biocLite(c("IdeoViz", "devtools"))

If it’s the first time you invoke the above “source” command, you should see a very similar screen as in the following picture: source biocLite command showcase

#install.packages("ggplot2", repos="http://cran.us.r-project.org")

Install from source of github.

library(devtools)
install_github("stephenturner/qqman")
## Skipping install of 'qqman' from a github remote, the SHA1 (0c3aa54e) has not changed since last install.
##   Use `force = TRUE` to force installation

To update the installed Bioconductor packages.

#biocLite("BiocUpgrade")

Topic 7. Save data in R session

To save history in R session

savehistory(file="Sept6.history")

#loadhistory(file="Sept6.history")

To save objects in R session

save(list=c("x", "data"), file="Sept6.RData")

#load("Sept6.RData")